Chapter 44 Critical Care and Fluid Therapy

Equine Fluid Physiology

  1. Forro M, Cieslar S, Ecker GL, et al. 2000. Total body water and ECFV measured using bioelectrical impedance analysis and indicator dilution in horses. J Appl Physiol 89:663. PUBMED Abstract
  2. Fielding CL, Magdesian KG, Elliott DA, et al. 2004. Use of multifrequency bioelectrical impedance analysis for estimation of total body water and extracellular and intracellular fluid volumes in horses. Am J Vet Res 65:320. PUBMED Abstract
  3. Deavers S, Rosborough JP, Garner HE, et al. 1973. Blood volumes and total body water in the domestic pony. J Appl Physiol 34:341. PUBMED Abstract
  4. Andrews FM, Nadeau JA, Saabye L, et al. 1997. Measurement of total body water content in horses using deuterium oxide dilution. Am J Vet Res 58:1060. PUBMED Abstract
  5. Fielding CL, Magdesian KG, Edman JE. 2011. Determination of body water compartments in neonatal foals by use of indicator dilution techniques and multifrequency bioelectrical impedance analysis. Am J Vet Res 72:1390. PUBMED Abstract
  6. Fielding CL, Magdesian KG, Elliott DA, et al. 2003. Pharmacokinetics and clinical utility of sodium bromide (NaBr) as an estimator of extracellular fluid volume in horses. J Vet Intern Med 17:213. PUBMED Abstract
  7. Spensley MS, Carlson GP, Harrold D. 1987. Plasma, red blood cell, total blood, and extracellular fluid volumes in healthy horses foals during growth. Am J Vet Res 48:1703. PUBMED Abstract
  8. Runk DT, Madigan JE, Rahal CJ, et al. 2000. Measurement of plasma colloid osmotic pressure in normal thoroughbred neonatal foals. J Vet Intern Med 14:475. PUBMED Abstract
  9. Magdesian KG, Fielding CL, Madigan JE, et al. 2004. Measurement of plasma colloid pressure in neonatal foals under intensive care: comparison of direct and indirect methods and the association of COP with selected clinical and clinicopathologic variables. J Vet Emerg Crit Care 14:108.
  10. Auer DE, Ng JC, Thompson HL, et al. 1989. Acute phase response in horses: changes in plasma cation concentrations after localized tissue injury. Vet Rec 124:235. PUBMED Abstract
  11. Parraga ME, Carlson GP, Thurmond M. 1995. Serum protein concentrations in horses with severe liver disease: a retrospective study and review of the literature. J Vet Intern Med 9:154. PUBMED Abstract
  12. Wendt-Hornickle EL, Snyder LB, Tang R, et al. 2011. The effects of lactated Ringer's solution (LRS) or LRS and 6% hetastarch on the colloid osmotic pressure, total protein and osmolality in healthy horses under general anesthesia. Vet Anaesth Analg 38:336. PUBMED Abstract
  13. Wiig H, Rubin K, Reed RK. 2003. New and active role of the interstitium in control of interstitial fluid pressure: potential therapeutic consequences. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 47:111. PUBMED Abstract
  14. Reed RK, Rubin K. 2010. Transcapillary exchange: role and importance of the interstitial fluid pressure and the extracellular matrix. Cardiovasc Res 87:211. PUBMED Abstract
  15. Levick JR, Michel CC. 2010. Microvascular fluid exchange and the revised Starling principle. Cardiovasc Res 87:198. PUBMED Abstract
  16. Palmer JE. 2004. Fluid therapy in the neonate: not your mother's fluid space. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 20:6. PUBMED Abstract
  17. Rose BD. 1984. Clinical physiology of acid-base and electrolyte disorders. McGraw-Hill, New York.
  18. Stevensen CH, Waldrop KS, Edsberg L, et al. 2003. Natriuresis and the extracellular volume expansion by hypertonic saline. J Surg Res 113:6. PUBMED Abstract
  19. Ayus JC, Armstrong CL, Arieff AI. 1996. Effects of hypernatraemia in the central nervous system and its therapy in rats and rabbits. J Physiol 492(Pt 1):243. PUBMED Abstract

General Principles for Fluid Therapy in Critical Care

  1. Vincent JL, Weil MH. 2006. Fluid challenge revisited. Crit Care Med 34:1333. PUBMED Abstract
  2. Perel P, Roberts I, Ker K. 2013. Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev Feb 28;2:CD000567.
  3. Fonnesbeck PV. 1968. Consumption and excretion of water by horses receiving all hay and hay-grain diets. J Anim Sci 27:1350.
  4. Tasker JB. 1967. Fluid and electrolyte studies in the horse. III. Intake and output of water, sodium, and potassium in normal horses. Cornell Vet 57:649.
  5. Sosa LL, Hodgson DR, Evans DL, et al. 2002. Hyperhydration prior to moderate intensity exercise causes arterial hypoxaemia. Equine Vet J Suppl 34:425. PUBMED Abstract

Critical Care and Fluid Therapy Monitoring Techniques

  1. Magdesian KG, Fielding CL, Rhodes DM, et al. 2006. Changes in central venous pressure and blood lactate concentration in response to acute blood loss in horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 229:1458. PUBMED Abstract
  2. Thomas WP, Madigan JE, Backus KQ, et al. 1987. Systemic and pulmonary haemodynamics in normal neonatal foals. J Reprod Fertil Suppl 35:623. PUBMED Abstract
  3. Hall LW. 1975. Measurement of central venous pressure in horses. Vet Rec 97:66. PUBMED Abstract
  4. Klein L, Sherman J. 1971. Effects of preanesthetic medication, anesthesia, and position of recumbency on central venous pressure in horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 170:216. PUBMED Abstract
  5. Vincent JL, Weil MH. 2006. Fluid challenge revisited. Crit Care Med 34:1333. PUBMED Abstract
  6. Franco RM, Ousey JC, Cash RS, et al. 1986. Study of arterial blood pressure in newborn foals using an electronic sphygmomanometer. Equine Vet J 18:475. PUBMED Abstract
  7. Reef VB, McGuirk SM. 2002. Diseases of the cardiovascular system, p 443. In Smith BP (ed), Large animal internal medicine, ed 3. Mosby, St Louis, MO.
  8. Steffey EP, Dunlop CI, Farver TB, et al. 1987. Cardiovascular and respiratory measurements in awake and isoflurane-anesthetized horses. Am J Vet Res 48:7. PUBMED Abstract
  9. Bonagura JD, Muir WW. 1991. The cardiovascular system, p 39. In Muir WW, Hubbell JaE (eds), Equine anesthesia: monitoring and emergency therapy. Mosby, St Louis, MO.
  10. Orr JA, Bisgard GE, Forster HV, et al. 1987. Cardiopulmonary measurements in nonanesthetized, resting normal ponies. Am J Vet Res 36:1667. PUBMED Abstract
  11. Johnson JH, Garner HE, Hutcheson DP. 1976. Ultrasonic measurement of arterial blood pressure in conditioned thoroughbreds. Equine Vet J 8:55. PUBMED Abstract
  12. Hughes D. 2000. Lactate measurement: diagnostic, therapeutic, and prognostic implications, p 112. In Bonagura JD (ed), Kirk's current veterinary therapy XIII (small animal practice). WB Saunders, Philadelphia, PA.
  13. De Backer D 2003. Lactic acidosis. Intensive Care Med 29:699. PUBMED Abstract
  14. Luchette FA, Jenkins WA, Friend LA. 2002. Hypoxia is not the sole cause of lactate production during shock. J Trauma 52:415. PUBMED Abstract
  15. Vail DM, Ogilvie GK, Fettman MJ, et al. 1990. Exacerbation of hyperlactatemia by infusion of lactated Ringer's solution in dogs with lymphoma. J Vet Intern Med 4:228. PUBMED Abstract
  16. Moore JN, Garner HE, Shapland JE, et al. 1980. Lactic acidosis and arterial hypoxemia during sublethal endotoxemia in conscious ponies. Am J Vet Res 41:1696. PUBMED Abstract
  17. Lumsden JH, Rowe R, Mullen K. 1980. Haematology and biochemistry reference values for the light horse. Can J Comp Med 44:32. PUBMED Abstract
  18. Flisinska-Bojanowska A, Gill J, Komosa M. 1991. Diurnal changes in lactic and pyruvic acid levels and pH values in foals during the first 13 weeks of their life and in their lactating mothers. Comp Biochem Physiol 99A:113. PUBMED Abstract
  19. Silver M, Fowden AL, Knox J. 1987. Sympathoadrenal and other responses to hypoglycemia in the young foal. J Reprod Fertil Suppl 35:607. PUBMED Abstract
  20. Kitchen H, Rossdale PD. 1975. Metabolic profiles of newborn foals. J Reprod Fertil Suppl 23:705. PUBMED Abstract
  21. Magdesian KG. 2003. Blood lactate levels in neonatal foals: normal values and temporal effects in the post-partum period. J Vet Emerg Crit Care 13:174.
  22. Corley KTT, Donaldson LL, Durando MM, et al. 2003. Cardiac output technologies with special reference to the horse. J Vet Intern Med 17:262. PUBMED Abstract
  23. Valverde A, Giguere S, Morey TE, et al. 2007. Comparison of noninvasive cardiac output measured by use of partial carbon dioxide rebreathing or the lithium dilution method in anesthetized foals. Am J Vet Res 68:141. PUBMED Abstract
  24. Giguere S, Bucki E, Adin DB, et al. 2005. Cardiac output measurement by partial carbon dioxide rebreathing, 2-dimensional echocardiography, and lithium-dilution method in anesthetized neonatal foals. J Vet Intern Med 19:737. PUBMED Abstract
  25. Hallowell GD, Corley KT. 2005. Use of lithium dilution and pulse contour analysis cardiac output determination in anaesthetized horses: a clinical evaluation. Vet Anaesth Analg 32:201. PUBMED Abstract
  26. Linton RA, Young LE, Marlin DJ, et al. 2000. Cardiac output measured by lithium dilution, thermodilution, and transesophageal Doppler echocardiography in anesthetized horses. Am J Vet Res 61:731. PUBMED Abstract
  27. Corley KT, Donaldson LL, Furr MO, et al. 2002. Comparison of lithium dilution and thermodilution cardiac output measurements in anaesthetised neonatal foals. Equine Vet J 34:598. PUBMED Abstract
  28. McConachie E, Barton MH, Rapoport G, Giguere S. 2013. Doppler and volumetric echocardiographic methods for cardiac output measurement in standing adult horses. J Vet Int Med 27:324. PUBMED Abstract
  29. Van den Berghe G, Wouters P, Weekers F, et al. 2001. Intensive insulin therapy in the critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 345:1359. PUBMED Abstract
  30. Van den Berghe G, Wilmer A, Milants I, et al. 2006. Intensive insulin therapy in mixed medical/surgical intensive care units: benefit versus harm. Diabetes 55:3151. PUBMED Abstract
  31. Klein GW, Hojsak JM, Rapaport R. 2007. Hyperglycemia in the pediatric intensive care unit. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 10:187. PUBMED Abstract
  32. Marik PE, Preiser JC. 2010. Toward understanding tight glycemic control in the ICU: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Chest 137:544. PUBMED Abstract
  33. Kansagara D, Fu R, Freeman M, et al. 2011. Intensive insulin therapy in hospitalized patients: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med 154:268. PUBMED Abstract
  34. The NICE-SUGAR Study Investigators. 2009. Intensive versus conventional glucose control in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 360:1283. PUBMED Abstract
  35. Rumbaugh GE, Carlson GP, Harrold D. 1982. Urinary production in the healthy horse and in horses deprived of feed and water. Am J Vet Res 43:735. PUBMED Abstract
  36. Groenendyk S, English PB, Abetz I. 1988. External balance of water and electrolytes in the horse. Equine Vet J 20:189. PUBMED Abstract
  37. Traver DS, Coffman JR, Moore JN, et al. 1976. Urine clearance ratios as a diagnostic aid in equine metabolic disease, p 177. Proceedings of the 22nd Annual Meeting of the American Association of Equine Practitioners, Dallas, TX.
  38. Traver DS, Salem C, Coffman JR, et al. 1977. Renal metabolism of endogenous substances in the horse: volumetric vs. clearance ratio methods. J Equine Med Surg 1:378.
  39. Brewer BD, Clement SF, Lotz WS, et al. 1991. Renal clearance, urinary excretion of endogenous substances, and urinary indices in healthy neonatal foals. J Vet Intern Med 5:28. PUBMED Abstract
  40. Grossman BS, Brobst DF, Kramer JW, et al. 1982. Urinary indices for differentiation of prerenal and renal azotemia in horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 180:284. PUBMED Abstract

Fluid Therapy for Specific Diseases and Disorders

  1. Arai K, Kawamoto M, Yuge O, et al. 1986. A comparative study on lactated Ringer and acetated Ringer solution as intraoperative fluid in patients with liver dysfunction. Masui 35:793. PUBMED Abstract
  2. Gossett KA, French DD, Cleghorn B, et al. 1990. Effect of acute acidemia on blood biochemical variables in healthy ponies. Am J Vet Res 51:1375. PUBMED Abstract
  3. Wilcox CS. 1983. Regulation of renal blood flow by plasma chloride. J Clin Invest 71:726. PUBMED Abstract
  4. Waters JH, Gottlieb A, Schoenwald P, et al. 2001. Normal saline versus lactated Ringer's solution for intraoperative fluid management in patients undergoing abdominal aortic aneurysm repair: an outcome study. Anesth Analg 93:817. PUBMED Abstract
  5. Simpson KW, Center SA, Birnbaum N. 2000. Fluid and electrolyte disturbances in gastrointestinal, pancreatic, and hepatic disease, p 330. In DiBartola SP (ed), Fluid therapy in small animal practice, ed 2. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, PA.
  6. Jones PA, Tomasic M, Gentry PA. 1997. Oncotic, hemodilutional, and hemostatic effects of isotonic saline and hydroxyethyl starch solutions in clinically normal ponies. Am J Vet Res 58:541. PUBMED Abstract
  7. Chandriani S, Skewes-Cox P, Zhong W, et al. 2013. Identification of a previously undescribed divergent virus from the Flaviviridae family in an outbreak of equine serum hepatitis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110:E1407. PUBMED Abstract

Fluid Therapy for Diarrhea and Colitis

  1. Vincent JL, Weil MH. 2006. Fluid challenge revisited. Crit Care Med 34:1333. PUBMED Abstract
  2. Gossett KA, French DD, Cleghorn B, et al. 1990. Effect of acute acidemia on blood biochemical variables in healthy ponies. Am J Vet Res 51:1375. PUBMED Abstract
  3. Jones PA, Tomasic M, Gentry PA. 1997. Oncotic, hemodilutional, and hemostatic effects of isotonic saline and hydroxyethyl starch solutions in clinically normal ponies. Am J Vet Res 58:541. PUBMED Abstract
  4. Kramer GC, Elgjo GI, Poli de Figueiredo LF, et al. 1997. Hyperosmotic-hyperoncotic solutions. Baillière's Clin Anaesthesiol 11:143.
  5. Rocha e Silva M, Poli de Figueiredo LF. 2005. Small volume hypertonic resuscitation of circulatory shock. Clinics 60:159. PUBMED Abstract
  6. Johnson AL, Criddle LM. 2004. Pass the salt: indications for and implications of using hypertonic saline. Crit Care Nurse 24:36. PUBMED Abstract
  7. Schmall LM, Muir WW, Robertson JT. 1990. Haemodynamic effects of small volume hypertonic saline in experimentally induced haemorrhagic shock. Equine Vet J 22:273. PUBMED Abstract
  8. Bertone JJ, Gossett KA, Shoemaker KE, et al. 1990. Effect of hypertonic vs. isotonic saline solution on responses to sublethal Escherichia coli endotoxemia in horses. Am J Vet Res 51:999. PUBMED Abstract

Fluid Therapy for Sepsis (Peritonitis, Pleuritis, Pneumonia, Internal Abscess)

  1. Vincent JL. 2006. Is the current management of severe sepsis and septic shock really evidence based? PLoS Med 3:1488. PUBMED Abstract
  2. Dellinger RP, Carlet JM, Masur H, et al. 2004. Surviving sepsis campaign guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med 32:858. PUBMED Abstract
  3. Choi PTL, Yip G, Quinonez LG, et al. 1999. Crystalloid vs. colloids in fluid resuscitation: a systematic review. Crit Care Med 27:200. PUBMED Abstract
  4. Vincent JL, Weil MH. 2006. Fluid challenge revisited. Crit Care Med 34:1333. PUBMED Abstract
  5. Cook D, Guyatt G. 2001. Colloid use for fluid resuscitation: evidence and spin. Ann Intern Med 135:205. PUBMED Abstract
  6. Schierhout G, Roberts I. 1998. Fluid resuscitation with colloid or crystalloid solutions in critically ill patients: a systematic review of randomized trials. BMJ 316:961. PUBMED Abstract
  7. Vincent JL, Gerlach H. 2004. Fluid resuscitation in severe sepsis and septic shock: an evidence-based review. Crit Care Med 32:S451. PUBMED Abstract
  8. Bridges EJ, Dukes SM. 2005. Sepsis shock: pathophysiology, monitoring and treatment. Crit Care Nurse 25:14. PUBMED Abstract
  9. Members of the American College of Chest Physicians/Society of Critical Care Medicine Consensus Conference Committee. 1992. American College of Chest Physicians/Society of Critical Care Medicine Consensus Conference: definitions for sepsis and organ failure and guidelines for the use of innovative therapies in sepsis. Crit Care Med 20:864.
  10. Kramer GC, Elgjo GI, Poli de Figueiredo LF, et al. 1997. Hyperosmotic-hyperoncotic solutions. Baillière's Clin Anaesthesiol 11:143.
  11. Rocha e Silva M, Poli de Figueiredo LF. 2005. Small volume hypertonic resuscitation of circulatory shock. Clinics 60:159. PUBMED Abstract
  12. Johnson AL, Criddle LM. 2004. Pass the salt: indications for and implications of using hypertonic saline. Crit Care Nurse 24:36. PUBMED Abstract
  13. Marx G, Pedder S, Smith L, et al. 2006. Attenuation of capillary leakage by hydroxyethyl starch (130/0.42) in a porcine model of septic shock. Crit Care Med 34:3005. PUBMED Abstract
  14. Hoffman JN, Vollmar B, Laschke MW, et al. 2002. Hydroxyethyl starch (130 kD), but not crystalloid volume support, improves microcirculation during normotensive endotoxemia. Anesthesiology 97:460.
  15. Jacob M, Bruegger D, Rehm M, et al. 2006. Contrasting effects of colloid and crystalloid resuscitation fluids on cardiac vascular permeability. Anesthesiology 104:1223. PUBMED Abstract
  16. Perel P, Roberts I, Ker K. 2013. Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev Feb 28;2:CD000567.
  17. Dieterich HJ, Weissmuller T, Rosenberger P, et al. 2006. Effect of hydroxyethyl starch on vascular leak syndrome and neutrophil accumulation during hypoxia. Crit Care Med 34:1775. PUBMED Abstract
  18. Jones PA, Tomasic M, Gentry PA, 1997. Oncotic, hemodilutional, and hemostatic effects of isotonic saline and hydroxyethyl starch solutions in clinically normal ponies. Am J Vet Res 58:541. PUBMED Abstract
  19. Boldt J, Muller M, Heesen M, et al. 1996. Influence of different volume therapies on platelet function in the critically ill. Intensive Care Med 22:1075. PUBMED Abstract
  20. Omar MN, Shouk TA, Khaleq MA. 1999. Activity of blood coagulation and fibrinolysis during and after hydroxyethyl starch (HES) colloidal volume replacement. Clin Biochem 32:269. PUBMED Abstract
  21. Strauss RG, Pennell BJ, Stump DC. 2002. A randomized, blinded trial comparing the hemostatic effects of pentastarch versus hetastarch. Transfusion 42:27. PUBMED Abstract
  22. Stump DC, Strauss RG, Henriksen RA, et al. 1985. Effects of hydroxyethyl starch on blood coagulation, particularly factor VIII. Transfusion 25:349. PUBMED Abstract
  23. Treib J, Baron JF. 1998. Hydroxyethyl starch: effects on hemostasis. Ann Fr Anaesth Réanim 17:72. PUBMED Abstract
  24. Brummel-Ziedins K, Whelihan MF, Ziedins EG, et al. 2006. The resuscitative fluid you choose may potentiate bleeding. J Trauma 61:1350. PUBMED Abstract
  25. Finfer S, Bellomo R, Boyce N, et al. 2004. A comparison of albumin and saline for fluid resuscitation in the intensive care unit. N Engl J Med 350:2247. PUBMED Abstract
  26. DeWitt SF, Paradis MR. 2004. Use of human albumin as a colloidal therapy in the hypoproteinemic equine. J Vet Int Med 18:394 (abstract).
  27. Rivers EP, Nguyen HB, Huang DT, et al. 2004. Early goal-directed therapy. Crit Care Med 32:314. PUBMED Abstract
  28. Early Goal-Directed Therapy Collaborative Group of Zhejiang Province. 2010. The effect of early goal-directed therapy on treatment of critical patients with severe sepsis/septic shock: a multi-center, prospective, randomized, controlled study. Zhongguo Wei Zhong 6:331. PUBMED Abstract
  29. Upadhyay M, Singhi S, Murlidharan J, et al. 2005. Randomized evaluation of fluid resuscitation with crystalloid (saline) and colloid (polymer from degraded gelatin in saline) in pediatric septic shock. Indian Pediatr 42:223. PUBMED Abstract
  30. Bellomo R. 2002. Fluid resuscitation: colloids vs. crystalloids. Blood Purif 20:239. PUBMED Abstract
  31. Hulse JD, Yacobi A. 1983. Hetastarch: an overview of the colloid and its metabolism. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 17:334. PUBMED Abstract
  32. Solanke TF, Khwaja MS, Madojemu EI. 1971. Plasma volume studies with four different plasma volume expanders. J Surg Res 11:140. PUBMED Abstract
  33. Metcalf W. Papadopoulos A, Tufaro R, et al. 1970. A clinical physiologic study of hydroxyethyl starch. Surg Gynecol Obstet 131:255. PUBMED Abstract
  34. Hallowell GD, Corley KT. 2006. Preoperative administration of hydroxyethyl starch or hypertonic saline to horses with colic. J Vet Intern Med 20:980. PUBMED Abstract
  35. Di Filippo A, Ciapetti M, Prencipe D, et al. 2006. Experimentally induced acute lung injury: the protective effect of hydroxyethyl starch. Ann Clin Lab Sci 36:345. PUBMED Abstract

Fluid Therapy for Renal Failure

  1. Vivrette S, Cowgill LD, Pascoe J, et al. 1993. Hemodialysis for treatment of oxytetracycline-induced acute renal failure in a neonatal foal. J Am Vet Med Assoc 203:105. PUBMED Abstract
  2. Gallatin LL, Couetil LL, Ash SR. 2005. Use of continuous-flow peritoneal dialysis for the treatment of acute renal failure in an adult horse. J Am Vet Med Assoc 226:756. PUBMED Abstract
  3. Wong DM, Witty D, Alcott CJ, et al. 2013. Renal replacement therapy in healthy adult horses. J Vet Intern Med 27:308. PUBMED Abstract
  4. Grauer GF. 1998. Fluid therapy in acute and chronic renal failure. Advances in fluid and electrolyte disorders. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 28:609. PUBMED Abstract
  5. Rieser TM. 2005. Urinary tract emergencies. Emergency medicine. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 35:359. PUBMED Abstract
  6. Schrier RW. 2010. Fluid administration in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 5:733. PUBMED Abstract
  7. Bouchard J, Soroko SB, Chertown GM, et al. 2009. Fluid accumulation, survival and recovery of kidney function in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury. Kidney Int 76:422. PUBMED Abstract
  8. Fielding CL, Balaam J, Sprayberry KA. 2004. How to measure central venous pressure in standing adult horses. Proceedings of the 50th Annual Convention of the American Association of Equine Practitioners, Denver, CO.
  9. Magdesian KG, Fielding CL, Rhodes DM, et al. 2006. Changes in central venous pressure and blood lactate concentration in response to acute blood loss in horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 229:1458. PUBMED Abstract
  10. Norton JL, Nolen-Watson RD, Underwood C, et al. 2011. Comparison of water manometry to 2 commercial electronic pressure monitors for central venous pressure measurement in horses. J Vet Intern Med 25:303. PUBMED Abstract
  11. Marik PE, Baram M, Vahid B. 2008. Does central venous pressure predict fluid responsiveness? A systematic review of the literature and the tale of seven mares. Chest 134:172. PUBMED Abstract
  12. Bayly WM, Brobst DF, Elfers RS, et al. 1986. Serum and urinary biochemistry and enzyme changes in ponies with acute renal failure. Cornell Vet 76:306. PUBMED Abstract
  13. Divers TJ, Whitlock RH, Byars TD, et al. 1987. Acute renal failure in six horses resulting from haemodynamic causes. Equine Vet J 19:17. PUBMED Abstract
  14. O'Malley CM, Frumento RJ, Hardy MA, et al. 2005. A randomized, double-blind comparison of lactated Ringer's solution and 0.9% NaCl during renal transplantation. Anesth Analg 100:1518. PUBMED Abstract
  15. Fielding CL, Magdesian KG, Meier CA, et al. 2012. Clinical, hematologic, and electrolyte changes with 0.9% sodium chloride or acetated fluids in endurance horses. J Vet Emerg Crit Care 22:327. PUBMED Abstract
  16. Carlson GP, Rumbaugh GE. 1983. Response to saline solution of normally fed horses and horses dehydrated by fasting. Am J Vet Res 44:964. PUBMED Abstract
  17. Gossett KA, French DD, Cleghorn B, et al. 1990. Effect of acute acidemia on blood biochemical variables in healthy ponies. Am J Vet Res 51:1375. PUBMED Abstract
  18. Rumbaugh GE, Carlson GP. 1982. Urinary production in the healthy horse and in horses deprived of feed and water. Am J Vet Res 43:735. PUBMED Abstract
  19. Morris DD, Divers TJ, Whitlock RH. 1984. Renal clearance and fractional excretion of electrolytes over a 24-hour period in horses. Am J Vet Res 45:2431. PUBMED Abstract
  20. Bellomo R, Ronco C, Kellum JA, et al. 2004. Acute renal failure—definition, outcome measures, animal models, fluid therapy and information technology needs: the Second International Consensus Conference of the Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative (ADQI) Group. Crit Care 8:R204. PUBMED Abstract
  21. Johansson AM, Gardner SY, Levine JF, et al. 2003. Furosemide continuous rate infusion in the horse: evaluation of enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects. J Vet Intern Med 17:887. PUBMED Abstract
  22. Ho KM, Power BM. 2010. Benefits and risks of furosemide in acute kidney injury. Anaesthesia 65:283. PUBMED Abstract
  23. Denton MD, Chertow GM, Brady HR. 1996. “Renal-dose” dopamine for the treatment of acute renal failure: scientific rationale, experimental studies and clinical trials. Kidney Int 50:4. PUBMED Abstract
  24. Kellum JA, Decker MJ. 2001. Use of dopamine in acute renal failure: a metaanalysis. Crit Care Med 29:1526. PUBMED Abstract
  25. Cantarovich F, Rangoonwala B, Lorenz H, et al. 2004. High dose furosemide for established ARF: a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial. Am J Kidney Dis 44:402. PUBMED Abstract
  26. Pereira CN, Machado FR, Guimaraes HP, et al. 2004. Hemodynamics and renal function during administration of low-dose dopamine in severely ill patients. Sao Paulo Med J 122:141. PUBMED Abstract

Fluid Therapy for Horses with Vasculitis

  1. Hoffman JN, Vollmar B, Laschke MW, et al. 2002. Hydroxyethyl starch (130 kD), but not crystalloid volume support, improves microcirculation during normotensive endotoxemia. Anesthesiology 97:460.
  2. Jacob M, Bruegger D, Rehm M, et al. 2006. Contrasting effects of colloid and crystalloid resuscitation fluids on cardiac vascular permeability. Anesthesiology 104:1223. PUBMED Abstract
  3. Jones PA, Tomasic M, Gentry PA. 1997. Oncotic, hemodilutional, and hemostatic effects of isotonic saline and hydroxyethyl starch solutions in clinically normal ponies. Am J Vet Res 58:541. PUBMED Abstract

Fluid Therapy for Horses with Hypoproteinemia

  1. Jones PA, Bain FT, Byars DT, et al. 2001. Effect of hydroxyethyl starch infusion on colloid oncotic pressure in hypoproteinemic horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 218:1130. PUBMED Abstract
  2. DeWitt SF, Paradis MR. 2004. Use of human albumin as a colloidal therapy in the hypoproteinemic equine. J Vet Intern Med 18:394 (abstract).
  3. Greatorex JC. 1977. Diagnosis and treatment of “verminous aneurysm” formation in the horse. Vet Rec 101:184. PUBMED Abstract
  4. Jones PA, Tomasic M, Gentry PA. 1997. Oncotic, hemodilutional, and hemostatic effects of isotonic saline and hydroxyethyl starch solutions in clinically normal ponies. Am J Vet Res 58:541. PUBMED Abstract

Fluid Therapy for Hemorrhagic Shock

  1. Alam HB. 2006. An update on fluid resuscitation. Scand J Surg 95:136. PUBMED Abstract
  2. Rhee P, Burris D, Kaufmann C, et al. 1998. Lactated Ringer's solution resuscitation causes neutrophil activation after hemorrhagic shock. J Trauma 44:313. PUBMED Abstract
  3. Ayuste EC, Chen H, Koustova E, et al. 2006. Hepatic and pulmonary apoptosis following hemorrhagic shock in swine can be reduced through modifications of conventional Ringer's solutions. J Trauma 60:52. PUBMED Abstract
  4. Rhee P, Wang D, Ruff P. 2000. Human neutrophil activation and increased adhesion by various resuscitation fluids. Crit Care Med 28:74. PUBMED Abstract
  5. Bahrami S, Zimmermann K, Szelenyi Z, et al. 2006. Small volume fluid resuscitation with hypertonic saline prevents inflammation but not mortality in a rat model of hemorrhagic shock. Shock 25:283. PUBMED Abstract
  6. Pascual JL, Ferri LE, Seely AJ, et al. 2002. Hypertonic saline resuscitation of hemorrhagic shock diminishes neutrophil rolling and adherence to endothelium and reduces in vivo vascular leakage. Ann Surg 236:634. PUBMED Abstract
  7. Murao Y, Loomis W, Wolf P, et al. 2003. Effect of dose of hypertonic saline on its potential to prevent lung tissue damage in a mouse model of hemorrhagic shock. Shock 20:29. PUBMED Abstract
  8. Murao Y, Hata M, Ohnishi K, et al. 2003. Hypertonic saline resuscitation reduces apoptosis and tissue damage of the small intestine in a mouse model of hemorrhagic shock. Shock 20:23. PUBMED Abstract
  9. Stanton K, Koustova E, Alam H, et al. 2001. Effect of hypertonic saline dextran solution on human neutrophil activation. Shock 5 (Suppl):79.
  10. Rocha e Silva M, Poli de Figueiredo LF. 2005. Small volume hypertonic resuscitation of circulatory shock. Clinics 60:159. PUBMED Abstract
  11. Boldt J, Muller M, Heesen M, et al. 1996. Influence of different volume therapies on platelet function in the critically ill. Intensive Care Med 22:1075. PUBMED Abstract
  12. Omar MN, Shouk TA, Khaleq MA. 1999. Activity of blood coagulation and fibrinolysis during and after hydroxyethyl starch (HES) colloidal volume replacement. Clin Biochem 32:269. PUBMED Abstract
  13. Strauss RG, Pennell BJ, Stump DC. 2002. A randomized, blinded trial comparing the hemostatic effects of pentastarch versus hetastarch. Transfusion 42:27. PUBMED Abstract
  14. Stump DC, Strauss RG, Henriksen RA, et al. 1985. Effects of hydroxyethyl starch on blood coagulation, particularly factor VIII. Transfusion 25:349. PUBMED Abstract
  15. Treib J, Baron JF. 1998. Hydroxyethyl starch: effects on hemostasis. Ann Fr Anaesth Réanim 17:72. PUBMED Abstract
  16. Rafie AD, Rath PA, Michell MW, et al. 2004. Hypotensive resuscitation of multiple hemorrhages using crystalloids and colloids. Shock 22:262. PUBMED Abstract

Fluid Therapy in Acute Neurologic Injury

  1. Eker C, Asigeirsson B, Grande PO, et al. 1998. Improved outcome after severe head injury with a new therapy based on principles for brain volume regulation and preserved microcirculation. Crit Care Med 26:1881. PUBMED Abstract
  2. Rosner MJ, Daughton S. 1990. Cerebral perfusion pressure management in head injury. J Trauma 30:933. PUBMED Abstract
  3. Chestnut RM, Marshall LF, Klauber MR, et al. 1993. The role of secondary brain injury in determining outcome from severe head injury. J Trauma 34:216. PUBMED Abstract
  4. Falk JL. 1995. Fluid resuscitation in brain-injured patients. Crit Care Med 23:4 (editorial). PUBMED Abstract
  5. Zornow MH, Prough MD. 1995. Fluid management in patients with traumatic brain injury. New Horiz 3:488. PUBMED Abstract
  6. Tommasino C, Moore S, Todd MM. 1988. Cerebral effects of isovolemic hemodilution with crystalloid or colloid solutions. Crit Care Med 16:862. PUBMED Abstract
  7. Torre-Healy A, Marko NF, Weil RJ. 2012. Hyperosmolar therapy for intracranial hypertension. Neurocrit Care 17:117. PUBMED Abstract
  8. Mortazavi MM, Romeo AK, Deep A, et al. 2012. Hypertonic saline for treating raised intracranial pressure: literature review with meta-analysis. J Neurosurg 116:201. PUBMED Abstract
  9. Adamides AA, Winter CD, Lewis PM, et al. 2006. Current controversies in the management of patients with severe traumatic brain injury. ANZ J Surg 76:163. PUBMED Abstract
  10. Ciesla DJ, Moore EE, Zallen G, et al. 2000. Hypertonic saline attenuation of polymorphonuclear neutrophil cytotoxicity: timing is everything. J Trauma 48:388. PUBMED Abstract
  11. Sumas M, Legos JL, Nathan D, et al. 2001. Tonicity of resuscitative fluids influences outcome after spinal cord injury. Neurosurgery 48:167. PUBMED Abstract
  12. Rovlias A, Kotsou S. 2000. The influence of hyperglycemia on neurologic outcome in patients with severe head injury. Neurosurgery 46:335. PUBMED Abstract
  13. Lam AM, Winn HR, Cullen BF, Sundling N. 1991. Hyperglycemia and neurologic outcome in patients with head injury. J Neurosurgery 75:545. PUBMED Abstract
  14. Van den Berge G, Wilmer A, Hermans G, et al. 2006. Intensive insulin therapy in the medical ICU. N Engl J Med 354:449. PUBMED Abstract
  15. Vespa P, McArthur DL, Stein N, et al. 2012. Tight glycemic control increases metabolic distress in traumatic brain injury: a randomized controlled within-subjects trial. Crit Care Med 40:1923. PUBMED Abstract
  16. The NICE-SUGAR Study Investigators. 2009. Intensive versus conventional glucose control in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 360:1283. PUBMED Abstract
  17. Sheline CT, Wei L. 2006. Free radical-mediated neurotoxicity may be caused by inhibition of mitochondrial dehydrogenases in vitro and in vivo. Neuroscience 140:235. PUBMED Abstract
  18. Polderman KH, Bloemers FW, Peerdeman SM, et al. 2000. Hypomagnesemia and hypophosphatemia at admission in patients with severe head injury. Crit Care Med 28:2022. PUBMED Abstract
  19. Sen AP, Gulati A. 2010. Use of magnesium in traumatic brain injury. Neurotherapeutics 7:91. PUBMED Abstract
  20. Muir KW. 1998. New experimental and clinical data on the efficacy of pharmacologic magnesium infusions in cerebral infarcts. Magnes Res 11:43. PUBMED Abstract

Fluid Therapy for Horses with Rhabdomyolysis

  1. Koterba A, Carlson GP. 1982. Acid base and electrolyte alterations in horses with exertional rhabdomyolysis. J Am Vet Med Assoc 180:202. PUBMED Abstract
  2. Perkins G, Valberg SJ, Madigan JE, et al. 1998. Electrolyte disturbances in foals with severe rhabdomyolysis. J Vet Intern Med 12:173. PUBMED Abstract
  3. Valberg SI, Mickelson JR, Gallant EM, et al. 1999. Exertional rhabdomyolysis in quarter horses and thoroughbreds: one syndrome, multiple aetiologies. Equine Vet J Suppl 30:533. PUBMED Abstract
  4. Cho YS, Lim H, Kim SH. 2007. Comparison of lactated Ringer's solution and 0.9% saline in the treatment of rhabdomyolysis induced by doxylamine intoxication. Emerg Med J 24:276. PUBMED Abstract
  5. Scharman EJ, Troutman WG. 2013. Prevention of kidney injury following rhabdomyolysis: a systematic review. Annals Pharmacother 47:90. PUBMED Abstract
  6. Dranchak PK, Valberg SJ, Onan GW, et al. 2005. Inheritance of recurrent exertional rhabdomyolysis in thoroughbreds. J Am Vet Med Assoc 227:762. PUBMED Abstract
  7. Ward TL, Valberg SJ, Adelson DL, et al. 2004. Glycogen branching enzyme (GBE1) mutation causing equine glycogen storage disease IV. Mamm Genome 15:570. PUBMED Abstract
  8. McDiarmid A. 2005. Possible familial basis to equine polysaccharide storage myopathy. Vet Rec 156:95. PUBMED Abstract
  9. Lentz LR, Valberg SJ, Herold LV, et al. 2002. Myoplasmaic calcium regulation in myotubes from horses with recurrent exertional rhabdomyolysis. Am J Vet Res 63:1724. PUBMED Abstract

Fluid Therapy for Hyperkalemic Periodic Paralysis

  1. Naylor JM. 1994. Equine hyperkalemic periodic paralysis: review and implications. Can Vet J 35:279. PUBMED Abstract
  2. Beech J, Lindborg S. 1995. Prophylactic efficacy of phenytoin, acetazolamide and hydrochlorothiazide in horses with hyperkalemic periodic paralysis. Res Vet Sci 59:95. PUBMED Abstract
  3. Bertone JJ, Gossett KA, Shoemaker KE, et al. 1990. Effect of hypertonic vs. isotonic saline solution on responses to sublethal Escherichia coli endotoxemia in horses. Am J Vet Res 51:999. PUBMED Abstract

Fluid Therapy for Competitive Endurance Horses

  1. Fielding CL, Meier CA, Balch OK, et al. 2011. Risk factors for the elimination of endurance horses from competition. J Am Vet Med Assoc 239:493. PUBMED Abstract
  2. Nagy A, Murray JK, Dyson SJ. 2014. Descriptive epidemiology and risk factors for eliminations from Fédération Equestre Internationale endurance rides due to lameness and metabolic reasons (2008-2011). Equine Vet J 46:38. PUBMED Abstract
  3. Barton MH, Williamson L, Jacks S, et al. 2003. Body weight, hematologic findings, and serum and plasma biochemical findings of horses competing in a 48-, 83-, or 159-km endurance ride under similar terrain and weather conditions. Am J Vet Res 64:746. PUBMED Abstract
  4. Schott HC, Marlin D, Geor R, et al. 2006. Changes in selected physiological and laboratory parameters in elite horses competing in a 160 km endurance race. Equine Vet J Suppl 36:37. PUBMED Abstract
  5. Trigo P, Castejon F, Riber C, et al. 2010. Use of biochemical parameters to predict metabolic elimination in endurance rides. Equine Vet J Suppl 38:142. PUBMED Abstract
  6. Fielding CL, Magdesian KG, Meier CA, et al. 2012. Clinical, hematologic, and electrolyte changes with 0.9% sodium chloride or acetated fluids in endurance horses. J Vet Emerg Crit Care 22:327. PUBMED Abstract
  7. Fielding CL, Magdesian KG. 2011. A comparison of hypertonic (7.2%) and isotonic (0.9%) saline for fluid resuscitation in horses: a randomized, double-blinded, clinical trial. J Vet Intern Med 25:1138. PUBMED Abstract
  8. Viu J, Jose-Cunilleras E, Armengou L, et al. 2010. Acid-base imbalances during a 120 km endurance race compared by traditional and simplified strong ion difference methods. Equine Vet J Suppl 38:76. PUBMED Abstract
  9. Fielding CL, Magdesian KG, Rhodes DM, et al. 2009. Clinical and biochemical abnormalities in endurance horses eliminated from competition for medical complications and requiring emergency medical treatment: 30 cases (2005-2006). J Vet Emerg Crit Care 19:473. PUBMED Abstract
  10. Aguilera-Tejero E, Estepa JC, Lopez I, et al. 2001. Plasma ionized calcium and parathyroid hormone concentrations in horses after endurance rides. J Am Vet Med Assoc 219:488. PUBMED Abstract
  11. Flaminio MJ, Rush BR. 1998. Fluid and electrolyte balance in endurance horses. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 14:147. PUBMED Abstract
  12. Gozal Y. 1996. Calcium administration in rhabdomyolysis may be detrimental. Anesth Analg 82:437. PUBMED Abstract
  13. Yamashita K, Tsubakishita S, Futaok S, et al. 2000. Cardiovascular effects of medetomidine, detomidine and xylazine in horses. J Vet Med Sci 62:1025. PUBMED Abstract
  14. Steffey EP, Kelly AB, Farver TB, et al. 1985. Cardiovascular and respiratory effects of acetylpromazine and xylazine on halothane-anesthetized horses. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 8:290. PUBMED Abstract
  15. Nunez E, Steffey EP, Ocampo L, et al. 2004. Effects of alpha2-adrenergic receptor agonists on urine production in horses deprived of food and water. Am J Vet Res 65:1342. PUBMED Abstract
  16. Rijtema M, Mosig D, Drukker A. 1999. The effects of dimethyl sulfoxide on renal function of the newborn rabbit. Biol Neonate 76:355. PUBMED Abstract
  17. Gallatin LL, Couetil LL, Ash SR. 2005. Use of continuous-flow peritoneal dialysis for the treatment of acute renal failure in an adult horse. J Am Vet Med Assoc 226:756. PUBMED Abstract
  18. Melli G, Chaudhry V, Cornblath DR. 2005. Rhabdomyolysis: an evaluation of 475 hospitalized patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 84:37. PUBMED Abstract
  19. Mansmann RA, Carlson GP, White NA, et al. 1974. Synchronous diaphragmatic flutter in horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 164:265. PUBMED Abstract
  20. Fielding CL, Dechant JE. 2012. Colic in competing endurance horses presenting to referral centres: 36 cases. Equine Vet J 44:472. PUBMED Abstract

Fluid Therapy for Burn (Thermal) Injury

  1. Hanson RR. 2005. Management of burn injuries in the horse. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 21:105. PUBMED Abstract
  2. Baxter CR, Shires T. 1968. Physiological response to crystalloid resuscitation of severe burns. Ann N Y Acad Sci 150:874. PUBMED Abstract
  3. Mitra B, Fitzgerald M, Cameron P, et al. 2006. Fluid resuscitation in major burns. ANZ J Surg 76:35. PUBMED Abstract
  4. Bortolani A, Governa M, Barisoni D. 1996. Fluid replacement in burned patients. Acta Chir Plast 38:132. PUBMED Abstract
  5. Schertel ER, Tobias TA. 2000. Hypertonic fluid therapy: burn shock, p 501. In DiBartola SP (ed), Fluid therapy in small animal practice, ed 2. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, PA.
  6. Barret JP, Gomez PA. 2005. Disseminated intravascular coagulation: a rare entity in burn injury. Burns 31:354. PUBMED Abstract

Fluid Therapy for Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome

  1. Vasudevan A, Lodha R, Kabra SK. 2004. Acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Indian J Pediatr 71:743. PUBMED Abstract
  2. Lewis CA, Martin GS. 2004. Understanding and managing fluid balance in patients with acute lung injury. Curr Opin Crit Care 10:13. PUBMED Abstract
  3. National Heart Lung and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Clinical Trials Network. 2006. Comparison of two fluid-management strategies in acute lung injury. N Engl J Med 354:2564. PUBMED Abstract
  4. Dunkel D. 2006. Acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome in foals. Clin Tech Equine Pract 5:127.
  5. Sibbald WJ, Driedger AA, Wells GA, et al. 1983. The short-term effects of increasing plasma colloid osmotic pressure in patients with noncardiac pulmonary edema. Surgery 93:620. PUBMED Abstract
  6. Martin GS, Moss M, Wheeler AP, et al. 2005. A randomized, controlled trial of furosemide with or without albumin in hypoproteinemic patients with acute lung injury. Crit Care Med 33:1681. PUBMED Abstract
  7. Lum H, Siflinger-Bimboim A, Bumenstock F, et al. 1991. Serum albumin decreases transendothelial permeability to macromolecules. Microvasc Res 42:91. PUBMED Abstract
  8. Zoellner H, Hou JY, Lovery M, et al. 1999. Inhibition of microvascular endothelial apoptosis in tissue explants by serum albumin. Microvasc Res 57:162. PUBMED Abstract
  9. Dull RO, Jo H, Sill H, et al. 1991. The effect of varying albumin concentration and hydrostatic pressure on hydraulic conductivity and albumin permeability of cultured endothelial monolayers. Microvasc Res 41:390. PUBMED Abstract
  10. National Heart Lung and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Clinical Trials Network, Wheeler AP, Bernard GR, et al. 2006. Pulmonary-artery versus central venous catheter to guide treatment of acute lung injury. N Engl J Med 354:2213. PUBMED Abstract

Fluid Therapy for Horses with Metabolic Acidosis

  1. Hughes D. 2000. Lactate measurement: diagnostic, therapeutic, and prognostic implications, p 112. In Bonagura JD (ed), Kirk's current veterinary therapy XIII (small animal practice). WB Saunders, Philadelphia, PA.
  2. De Backer D. 2003. Lactic acidosis. Intensive Care Med 29:699. PUBMED Abstract
  3. Luchette FA, Jenkins WA, Friend LA. 2002. Hypoxia is not the sole cause of lactate production during shock. J Trauma 52:415. PUBMED Abstract
  4. Vail DM, Ogilvie GK, Fettman MJ, et al. 1990. Exacerbation of hyperlactatemia by infusion of lactated Ringer's solution in dogs with lymphoma. J Vet Intern Med 4:228. PUBMED Abstract
  5. Narins RG, Cohen JJ. 1987. Bicarbonate therapy for organic acidosis: the case for its continued use. Ann Intern Med 106:615. PUBMED Abstract
  6. Stacpoole PW. 1986. Lactic acidosis: the case against bicarbonate therapy. Ann Intern Med 105:276. PUBMED Abstract
  7. Graf H, Leach W, Arieff AI. 1985. Evidence for a detrimental effect of bicarbonate therapy in hypoxic lactic acidosis. Science 227:754. PUBMED Abstract
  8. Gossett KA, French DD, Cleghorn B, et al. 1990. Blood biochemical response to sodium bicarbonate infusion during sublethal endotoxemia in ponies. Am J Vet Res 51:1370. PUBMED Abstract
  9. Mitchell JH, Wildenthal K, Johnson RL. 1972. The effects of acid-base disturbances on cardiovascular and pulmonary function. Kidney Int 1:375. PUBMED Abstract

Fluid Therapy for Heart Failure

  1. Bonagura JD, Lehmkuhl LB, Autran de Morais H. 2006. Fluid and diuretic therapy in heart failure, p 490. In DiBartola SP (ed), Fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base disorders in small animal practice, ed 3. WB Saunders, St Louis, MO.

Fluid Therapy in Ruminants

  1. National Research Council. 2001. Nutrient requirements of dairy cattle, ed 7 (revised). National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
  2. Roussel AJ, Cohen ND, Holland PS, et al. 1998. Alterations in acid-base and serum electrolyte concentrations in cattle: 632 cases (1984-1994). J Am Vet Med Assoc 212:1769. PUBMED Abstract
  3. Shkolnik A, Maltz E, Choshniak I. 1991. The role of the ruminant's digestive tract as a water reservoir, pp 731-742. In Ruckebusch Y, Thivend P (eds), Digestive physiology and metabolism in ruminants. MTP Press, Lancaster, UK.
  4. Carter RR, Grovum WL. 1990. A review of the physiologic significance of hypertonic body fluid on feed intake and ruminal function: salivation, motility, and microbes. J Anim Sci 68:2811. PUBMED Abstract
  5. Dodson A, Sellers AF, Gatewood VH. 1976. Dependence of Cr-EDTA absorption from the rumen on luminal osmotic pressure. Am J Physiol 231:1595. PUBMED Abstract
  6. Owens FN, Secrist DS, Hill WJ, et al. 1998. Acidosis in cattle: a review. J Anim Sci 76:275. PUBMED Abstract
  7. Roussel AJ, Taliaoferro L, Navarre CB, et al. 1996. Catheterization of the auricular vein in cattle: 68 cases. J Am Vet Med Assoc 208:905. PUBMED Abstract
  8. Constable PD, St-Jean G, Hull BL, et al. 1991. Preoperative prognostic indicators in cattle with abomasal volvulus. J Am Vet Med Assoc 198:2077. PUBMED Abstract
  9. Roussel AJ, Cohen ND, Hooper RN. 2000. Abomasal displacements and volvulus in beef cattle: 19 cases (1988-1998). J Am Vet Med Assoc 216:730. PUBMED Abstract
  10. Brobst D. 1986. Review of the pathophysiology of alterations in potassium homeostasis. J Am Vet Med Assoc 188:1019. PUBMED Abstract
  11. Constable P. 2003. Fluid and electrolyte therapy in ruminants. Vet Clin Food Anim 19:557. PUBMED Abstract
  12. Sweeney RW. 1999. Treatment of potassium balance disorders. Vet Clin Food Anim 15:609. PUBMED Abstract
  13. Schweigel M, Freyer M, Leclercq S, et al. 2005. Luminal hyperosmolarity decreases Na transport and impairs barrier function of sheep rumen epithelium. J Comp Physiol 175:575. PUBMED Abstract
  14. Andersen PH, Hesselholt M, Jarlov N. 1994. Endotoxin and arachidonic acid metabolites in portal, hepatic, and arterial blood of cattle with acute ruminal acidosis. Acta Vet Scand 35:223. PUBMED Abstract
  15. Divers TJ. 2005. Blood component transfusions. Vet Clin Food Anim 21:615. PUBMED Abstract
  16. Marx G, Pedder D, Smith L, et al. 2006. Attenuation of capillary leakage by hydroxyethyl starch (130/0.42) in a porcine model of septic shock. Crit Care Med 34:3005. PUBMED Abstract
  17. Jones PA, Tomasic M, Gentry PA. 1997. Oncotic, hemodilutional, and hemostatic effects of isotonic saline and hydroxyethyl starch solutions in clinically normal ponies. Am J Vet Res 58:541. PUBMED Abstract
  18. Smith GW, Constable PD, Morin DE. 2001. Ability of hematologic and serum biochemical variables to differentiate gram-negative and gram-positive mastitis in dairy cows. J Vet Int Med 15:394. PUBMED Abstract
  19. Katholm J, Andersen PH. 1992. Acute coliform mastitis in dairy cows: endotoxin and biochemical changes in plasma and colony-forming units in milk. Vet Rec 131:513. PUBMED Abstract
  20. Coffer NJ, Frank N, Elliott SB, et al. 2006. Effects of dexamethasone and isoflupredone acetate on plasma potassium concentrations and other biochemical measurements in dairy cows in early lactation. Am J Vet Res 67:1251. PUBMED Abstract
  21. Grünberg W, Morin DE, Drackley JK, et al. 2006. Effect of rapid intravenous administration of 50% dextrose solution on phosphorus homeostasis in postparturient dairy cows. J Vet Intern Med 20:1471. PUBMED Abstract
  22. Wagner SA, Schimek DE. 2010. Evaluation of the effect of bolus administration of 50% dextrose solution on measures of electrolyte and energy balance in postpartum dairy cows. Am J Vet Res 71:1074. PUBMED Abstract
  23. George JW, Hird DW, George LW. 2007. Serum biochemical abnormalities in goats with uroliths: 107 cases (1992-2003). J Am Vet Med Assoc 230:101. PUBMED Abstract
  24. Reiser TM. 2005. Urinary tract emergencies. Emergency medicine. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 35:359. PUBMED Abstract